Racism And Racism Essay - 1620 Words

Mankind has always been diverse within its people, but due to this many were subjected to acts of racism and other forms of discrimination. From foreigners in modern-day Germany becoming victims of human rights abuses such as beatings, verbal abuse, etc. by Neo-Nazis and teenage skinheads. To simply just observing another person wearing a t-shirt of a rival football could still instill negative attitudes towards that particular person, even if there was zero social interaction to provide a justifiable impression. This leads to the focus of this essay. The insidious, non-conscious, irrational automatic bias and how it can affect our thought processes and behavior. To the point that our basic human traits such as race, sex, age, religion, or†¦show more content†¦However, explicit measures rely on self-reports or easily observed behaviours. This was easier during the past because social norms were far more accepting of group-based biases (Katz Braly, 1933). In the present day, individuals are less likely to reveal their prejudices against people of different races or other social groups. (Devine, 1989; Dovidio, 1992) Using explicit measures to investigate stereotypes and prejudices have its advantages and disadvantages. Platforms of gathering data explicitly such as questionnaires and surveys can be distributed to large samples relatively easy and inexpensively. Furthermore, if the sample is large enough it should be able to generalise the findings to an even larger population. Explicit measures are able to test a wide range of variables with less effort than implicit measures. Many questions to test different variables can be all set in one questionnaire. The behaviours and feelings of participants can be revealed straightforwardly that have been experienced in actual situations. Simply asking participants directly to obtain their opinions can sometimes be an effective way of gathering valid data. Depending on how the questionnaires are structured, clos ed questions are easily quantifiable making it ideal to summarise the data in the form of statistics. As for the disadvantages, strong opportunity for social desirability from the participants. For whatever reason it may be,Show MoreRelatedRacism And Racism Essay971 Words   |  4 PagesIs it racism or economics which hinders many African American communities from progressing economically in the 21st Century? This research proposal will address this question by examining the social and psychological impact caused by racism and the economic impact it’s had on the African American community. This proposal will further investigate whether the emotional scars of slavery continue to hamper African American progress or if racism is actually the cause. The economic cost of discriminationRead MoreRacism And Racism Essay718 Words   |  3 PagesThe death penalty discriminates and marginalizes minorities and the poor in our society. Legal systems are unfair therefore the death penalty is imposed unfairly since equals are not treated equally. The richest man alive is not treated the same as a homeless individual on the streets of downtown Toronto. There are many flaws in the justice system mostly because it is made up of individuals and as individuals we are prone to making mistakes. Witnesses, prosecutors and jurors can create the smallestRead MoreRacism And Racism Essay986 Words   |  4 Pagessimilarities between sexism and racism. Sexism occurs when a person’s gender or sex is used as the basis for discriminating. Females are more susceptible to sexism although males are also susceptible. Sexual harassment and rape are examples of extreme cases of sexism. Racism occurs when people of a particular race or ethnicity are di scriminated against or made to feel inferior. The primary outcome of the paper after comparison is to determine most dehumanizing act between racism and sexism. The first similarityRead MoreRacism And Racism Essay1350 Words   |  6 PagesWhite privilege and acts of racism are just as pervasive on a college campus as in any other environment. Students of color may be treated differently in a classroom setting from their white counterparts, not because of who they are or how they behave but simply because of the color of their skin. Racism can be the assumption that of the two people in the classroom, the white one is the professor. It is the split-second conclusion that a Latino student with a tattoo is in a gang, but a white studentRead MoreRacism And Racism Essay1419 Words   |  6 Pagesoppression of white society. Throughout the film, racism and violence played a huge role and presented the gap between the regular lives of various African American peoples and community that are opposed. Director Spike Lee uses insulting diction and intense scenes to show how severe racism can lead to violence. Writers and artists such as Stokely Carmic hael and Dr. King would agree that this perspective is true. The argument of Lee’s film demonstrates that racism can affect through prestige of the communityRead MoreRacism And Racism Essay1448 Words   |  6 PagesHow does stratification system take place in African American communities? Many minority Communities are subjected to racism and discrimination within/ outside their communities. The social prejudices on the black community gives an example of a caste system where you re born into unequal groups based on their parents (race), most likely born into poverty if a minority. â€Å"Minority racial groups are more likely to experience multidimensional property than their white counterparts†, due to historicalRead MoreRacism And Racism Essay1042 Words   |  5 Pagesthat private development be the main focus as opposed to public housing and plans for the development were never instituted (Young 146-147). Moving into the next decade black Detroiters would be conti nuing to be faced with the historical legacies of racism and the social consequences that would become the propulsion for rebellion. Read MoreRacism in Essays815 Words   |  4 PagesRACISM IN ESSAYS Is an author’s main purpose of writing only to entertain his readers? Authors sometimes use their literature to demonstrate their opinions about a certain issue. One of these topics may be racial and ethnic discrimination. We see how authors express their views about racism through the literatures â€Å"Walk Well, My Brother†, â€Å"Lark Song†, and â€Å"Cowboys and Indians†. In â€Å"Walk Well, My Brother†, Farley Mowat focuses on racism against the Eskimos in 1951. As the character of CharlieRead MoreRacism Essay1634 Words   |  7 PagesFerrell Essay 3.1 Writing 121 Racism Changes Lives Racism is defined as views, practices, and actions reflecting the belief that human beings are divided into certain categories known as races and that these members share common attributes amongst one another. This definition causes a specific group or race to be less desirable, more desirable, inferior, or superior. The segregation between ethnicities have stirred many debates, battles, and controversy. Another issue that is related to racism wouldRead More Prejudice and Racism - No Racism in Heart of Darkness Essay1108 Words   |  5 PagesNo Racism in Heart of Darkness      Ã‚   Chinua Achebe challenges Joseph Conrads novella depicting the looting of Africa, Heart of Darkness (1902) in his essay An Image of Africa (1975). Achebes is an indignant yet solidly rooted argument that brings the perspective of a celebrated African writer who chips away at the almost universal acceptance of the work as classic, and proclaims that Conrad had written a bloody racist book (Achebe 319). In her introduction in the Signet 1997 edition

Societys Standards vs. Self free essay sample

Connie Smith Ms. Wheeler P6 AP Language 15 April 2013 Society’s Standards vs. Self Everyone likes to think that they are a unique individual who is not controlled or influenced by society. But all societies, no matter what type, have standards. People are what make up society, and they effect society’s expectations. But how do society’s standards influence one’s view of self and their actions? Standards affect one’s idea of self by giving one a superficial idea of what is the norm, and this view affects the way one acts by influencing one to act a certain way to meet or exceed those standards even though it might go against their true identity. In each society, standards are present, and there are many different standards and expectations. Unfortunately, many of these standards clash and become what seems a never-ending conflict for an individual. Anzaldua, in her writing, explains her struggle of being â€Å"American† and being â€Å"Hispanic. We will write a custom essay sample on Societys Standards vs. Self or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page These different standards changed her view of self. She was so confused on who she was, that she decided to just try and be what her mother or her school wanted her to be. So she now thought of herself as a Mexican speaking English or an American speaking Spanish. Because of this view, her actions changed. She tried being less Hispanic at Smith 2 school and took two speech classes. Yet, at home and church she tried being more Hispanic and less English (Anzaldua, 44). Expectations changed her view of self and her actions. Cooper in his writing, â€Å"A Clack of Tiny Sparks†¦Ã¢â‚¬  illustrates his struggle with himself. Cooper would not have had this hard struggle with his identity if society’s standards had not affected him. To be gay was not very acceptable in his day and time, and he was aware of those expectations. This influenced his idea of self, and he thought of himself as an outsider. This view definitely affected the way he acted. When one asked him if he was a â€Å"fag†, he tried making himself less conspicuous while denying any accusations. When his mother seemed terrified at just the topic of being gay, and when he was at the party, Cooper went against his true identity and stuck with society’s view on self (Cooper, 123). Society influenced him to go against himself and even influenced him to try to change. Yet, in the end, both Anzaldua and Cooper embraced their true identity after a long and constant struggle against society’s view of what is normal. Although society’s expectations exist, both individuals were able to become proud of who they are. A strong individual may struggle with society, but in the end, they will emerge confident about themselves no matter what society says. Walker was extremely self-conscious about her eye and how she acted after the â€Å"accident†. She struggled with who she was and what others thought about her. She was the only one who was in control of her thoughts and actions, even though many told her that she did not change, and that she was the same person she was after the incident, she thought Smith 3 that she was not beautiful (Walker, 445). Although society might call you fat, a nerd, ugly, unpopular, etc. n the end, oneself is the only one influencing their own idea of self. Society will always have standards and expectations concerning what one should look like, be like, and act like. These expectations do have the power to influence and can effect one’s life dramatically, by changing their view of self and making one act a certain way to be accepted. Although these standard s exist, it is up to each and every individual to find their own idea of self and act as they please, expressing who they are without letting society shake them.

World War II Innovations

Introduction The period following the end of World War II was characterized with a great deal of technological development, probably as a consequence of the victories achieved by the Allied forces. The aftermath of World War II set in motion a wave of innovations that proved to be greatly beneficial in improving the living standards of the global population.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on World War II Innovations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Such advancements in technology were a direct consequence of the experiences gained during the several years of the War. An urgent need was felt to innovate in order to have more technologically advanced weaponry that would allow having the much required edge in winning the war. The potential for technological development had been thus created during the Second World War itself. After it ended in 1945, the available resources and technology could be gainfully used in the development of consumer goods that led to improved standards of living on a global basis. The technological innovations in this regard were made in several fields such as Linguistics, Medicine, Weaponry, Intelligence and Communication in addition to the technological progress made in manufacturing and service industries (Castells 45). The rapid advancement in technology during World War II was primarily inspired by the propensity to research and devise military strategies that would allow penetration and sabotage of enemy forces and supply lines respectively. In addition, innovation in technology was also inspired by the enhanced ability of the military to use technology in gathering intelligence, which was gainfully used in obtaining the much needed information about military capabilities and movement of enemy forces. After the World War II ended, the technology developed till that time could be further innovated in creating a virtual technological revolution that transformed the lives of humanity in the coming decades (Gray 36). World War II heralded noteworthy technological innovations in the areas of nuclear technology and information technology that revolutionized ways of living in the 21st century. Nuclear Technology Invention of Nuclear Reactor The invention of the atomic bomb by the United States and its allies eclipses any other innovation made during World War II. Named as the Manhattan Project during World War II, the nuclear program of the Allies led to catastrophic consequences for the Axis forces, particularly in the context of the bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which led to the death of millions of people.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Although the initial objective of the Manhattan Project was to use nuclear technology in establishing reactors for the generation of electricity under the auspicious leadership of Italian physicist Enrico Fern i, the need to annihilate German, Italian and Japanese forces during World War II made the Allied leadership to focus on developing the first atomic bomb. It was under the leadership of Enrico Fermi, who is recognized as the father of the atomic bomb because of his exhaustive research and positive outcomes in developing nuclear power, that the US made use his technology in establishing several nuclear power plants across the entire country (Russell 93). Further innovations in nuclear technology were made by Enrico Fermi after the end of World War II, leading to major breakthroughs in reducing dependence on electricity generated through coal fuel and hydro power. This was made possible because of the innovation that led to the availability of cheaper, environmentally friendly and reliable nuclear generated electric power. Innovation of Radiology Medicine Besides its significant role in leading the green revolution through generation of environmentally clean energy, innovation in nucl ear technology during World War II allowed wider application in medicine, especially in radiology therapy and imaging. The use of nuclear technology in medicine can be traced back to the campaign initiated by the Polish Physics and Chemistry Nobel Prize laureate Marie Curie just before the beginning of World War II. Marie Curie embarked on a campaign to collect radium for use in radiology medicine. She is credited with the establishment of globally recognized research institutes of radiology medicine, including the Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw. Nuclear medicine finds wide application in radiology treatment of different cancerous malignancies with the use of techniques such as neoplasm and radiology imaging. Radar Technology The innovations in radar technology during World War II helped in making improvements in the aviation industry and its associate role of uplifting the living standards of the global population. Such innovations also helped in enhancing national security from the perspective of external and internal aggression. Radar technology involves the use of radio waves in the detection of far-off objects.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on World War II Innovations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Such objects may include ships, aircrafts, submarines and a wide-range of missiles and rocket weaponry. Innovation of radar technology during World War II led to improvement in bombsights and radar capabilities, which were inspired by their increased use in World War II. Radar technology is even regarded as the defining innovation that tilted the balance in favor of the allied forces during World War II. Later, it also heralded the revolution in both military and civil aviation in the contemporary world. Radar technology was invented immediately after World War II began, but significant improvements in the technology were made during the war through research and development, mainly for military purposes. This new technology allowed the use of applications with which approaching enemy aircraft and ships could be detected. Vaccines Collaborative arrangements were made between the military and academia in efforts to prevent war-exacerbated diseases, particularly pneumococcal pneumonia and influenza and such initiatives led to the innovation of disease prevention vaccines. Wartime research programs on preventable disease are recognized for having led to the improvement and innovation of 10 new vaccines for treatment of a series of virulent preventable diseases (Godin 121). Besides, wartime research in health and medicine science and technology led to innovations relative to substitute blood samples such as plasma, antibiotics such as penicillin and insecticides such as DDT. Nevertheless, the innovation of vaccines stands out as the most important achievement in the area of medical and health technology during World War II. Such vaccines involved development of hig hly effective, safe and licensed antibiotics and microbial preventative therapy for immunization against several diseases, which did not exist before the War began. Electrolysis Chemistry, Digital Technology Military Technology Other notable innovations during World War II having significant impact on the lives of human beings in the 21st century include the demagnetization of ships to prevent them from torpedo and mines attacks. This technique also helps in detection of submarines. Demagnetization technology was developed during World War II and is particularly useful in exploration of mineral and ore deposits.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Research is currently underway to come up with innovations that will help the ship building industry to use corrosion free material that prevents ships from the harmful impacts of corrosive sea water. This is possible through the application of cathode electrolysis technology, which was developed during World War II. World War II also spearheaded the digital revolution of the late 20th century and early 21 century through robust research in information transmission, electronics and intelligence. Amongst these was the development of the encryption machine by Germans, which heralded the large scale application of digital encryption in information technology. Conclusion It is apparent that in contrast with World War I, the Second World War featured both military and scientific methods of warfare as the two opposite camps tried to outmaneuver each other through the use of technologically advanced, updated and state-of-the-art military equipment and techniques, which could not have been made possible without the support of science and technology. Innovations in both military combat weapons and military technology have led to the improvement of standards of living in the 21st century. People feel more secure now because there are lesser risks of aggression and the military is very well equipped with the latest technology in doing away with security threats. This has been made possible because of the use of science and technology, which has led to innovations that have improved defense capabilities as also the living standards of people. Many hold that the innovations in nuclear technology have enhanced fears of another world war, which will lead to the destruction of the world. However, such fears do not have a strong basis because the global community understands the consequences of a nuclear war and recognizes that nuclear technology is best used for the welfare of human societies. Works Cited Castells, Manuel. Technopoles of the World The Making of 21st Century I ndustrial Complexes. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2014. Print. Godin, Benoit. Measurement and statistics on science and technology 1920 to the present. New York: Routledge, 2005. Print. Gray, John. Reconstructions of secondary education: theory, myth and practice since the second world war.. S.l.: Routledge, 2012. Print. Russell, James. Innovation, Transformation, and War Counterinsurgency Operations in Anbar and Ninewa Provinces, Iraq, 2005-2007. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2010. Print. This essay on World War II Innovations was written and submitted by user Mar1a to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on A Doll House

The Patriarchal Marriage Of Nora And Helmer! From the beginning of time until about the 1970’s women were expected to be seen and not heard. In A Doll House, Nora and Helmer’s marriage reflected this typed of thinking. Nora and Helmer’s relationship was built on the idea of the man goes to work and makes all the household decisions and the woman takes care of the children and the house. They were part of a patriarchal society, were according to Webster’s New World Dictionary is a form of social organization in which the father or the eldest male is recognized as the head of the family or tribe. Also it means government, rule, or domination by men as far as the family or tribe. Women had to secretly do things without their husband’s permission. I think that this made the women feel important, or that they could do things by themselves. If the truth ever came out it could ruin the relationship between husband and wife, it make s the man feel less of a man when his wife doesn’t come to him for everything. Women were considered to be possessions of their husbands, Helmer sees Nora as his possession or maybe even a child. He always makes sure to say â€Å"my† when calling her â€Å" Is that my little lark twittering out there?†(997). Just to ask her if see was home he says it in a way to make sure that she understands that she belongs to him. He even goes on to say â€Å"Can’t I look at my richest treasure? At all that beauty that’s mine, mine alone- completely and utterly.†(1038). I don’t know if he is just trying to remind Nora that she beings to him and only him or if he is trying to make sure that she is faithful to him. I believe it’s a little bit of both. He’s saying that nobody else can have you because you belong to me. Helmer often chastises Nora when he feels like she is getting beside herself. â€Å"My little songbird must never do that again. A songbird needs a clean beak to warble with. No false notes. T... Free Essays on A Doll House Free Essays on A Doll House The Dedicated Husband Torvald Helmer is the breadwinner and foundation for his household in Henrik Ibsen’s play, A Doll House. His authoritative personality that holds the family together throughout the beginning of the play is what ends up tearing them apart in the end. His initial actions give the impression that he is a caring and devoted husband, but when trouble occurs it is apparent that this facade is to cover up his self-absorption. Helmer’s breadwinning is so important in fact that he has to find time to see his wife between working not only at the office, but at home as well. An example of this would be when he tells her that he â€Å"Can’t be disturbed,† (1569) when she asks him to see what she’s bought. His work frequently occupies the time he could be spending with his family. Another example of his desire to be successful is when he says, â€Å"Ah, it’s so gratifying to know that one’s gotten a safe, secure job, and with a comfortable salary. It’s a great satisfaction, isn’t it?† (1571) At times his authoritative personality can almost be taken as dictation. Within the first ten lines of the play he is already commenting on â€Å"the little spendthrift†¦throwing money around again† (1569). Torvald always seems to want to control his wife’s spending habits. In addition to the money she spends, he goes so far as to want control over her eating habits. This is evident when it seems as though she is trying to hide her food from him when the play says, â€Å"Nora shuts the door. Drawing a bag of macaroons from her pocket, she eats a couple, then steals over and listens at her husband’s door†¦ Putting the macaroon bag in her pocket and wiping her mouth† (1569). A little later in the play Helmer is talking down to his wife interrogating her, â€Å"But wait; it seems to me you have a very suspicious look today-†¦Surely my sweet tooth hasn’t been running riot in town today, has she? Hasn’t nibb... Free Essays on A Doll House The Patriarchal Marriage Of Nora And Helmer! From the beginning of time until about the 1970’s women were expected to be seen and not heard. In A Doll House, Nora and Helmer’s marriage reflected this typed of thinking. Nora and Helmer’s relationship was built on the idea of the man goes to work and makes all the household decisions and the woman takes care of the children and the house. They were part of a patriarchal society, were according to Webster’s New World Dictionary is a form of social organization in which the father or the eldest male is recognized as the head of the family or tribe. Also it means government, rule, or domination by men as far as the family or tribe. Women had to secretly do things without their husband’s permission. I think that this made the women feel important, or that they could do things by themselves. If the truth ever came out it could ruin the relationship between husband and wife, it make s the man feel less of a man when his wife doesn’t come to him for everything. Women were considered to be possessions of their husbands, Helmer sees Nora as his possession or maybe even a child. He always makes sure to say â€Å"my† when calling her â€Å" Is that my little lark twittering out there?†(997). Just to ask her if see was home he says it in a way to make sure that she understands that she belongs to him. He even goes on to say â€Å"Can’t I look at my richest treasure? At all that beauty that’s mine, mine alone- completely and utterly.†(1038). I don’t know if he is just trying to remind Nora that she beings to him and only him or if he is trying to make sure that she is faithful to him. I believe it’s a little bit of both. He’s saying that nobody else can have you because you belong to me. Helmer often chastises Nora when he feels like she is getting beside herself. â€Å"My little songbird must never do that again. A songbird needs a clean beak to warble with. No false notes. T... Free Essays on A Doll House The function of the past in Ibsen’s play The Doll House is to generate conflict within Nora and between Torvald and her, and thus contribute to her decisive departure at the end. Nora and Torvald’s upbringing and experience cultivate their perception of conventional domestic roles. Moreover, other characters stories of their past reshape Nora’s point of view and give her encouragement to leave. Therefore, the past is significant in this play as it dictates the main conflict. Nora and Torvald are nurtured in a society where male is the dominant figure. Torvald believes that the male should be protective of the female and head the family. At first, Nora has no complains and she just takes it as it is. She enjoys her â€Å"beautiful, happy home† (54). Therefore, Torvald claims himself to â€Å"have [has] strength and courage enough as a man to take on the whole weigh [problems] myself [himself]† (79). This believe of his which seems to the norm of the culture defines Nora as the weak. She is constantly nicknamed by Torvald as â€Å"song bird† or â€Å"poor thing† or â€Å"my little darling† throughout the text. Nora has no problem with Torvald’s masculine pride because she fantasizes that Torvald loves her and she understands him. She said to Rank, â€Å"You know how deeply, how inexpressibly dearly Torvald loves me; he’d never hesitate a second to give up his life for me.†(83) However, she is disappoi nted to Torvald outrageous response to past. That’s why Nora becomes another person and takes control of the situation for once and then come to a decision to exit. Both Mrs. Linde’ and the maid, Anne-Marie’s story of their past has influenced her final departure. Anne-Marie, the nurse, has given her daughter to stranger so that she can work with Nora. Nora’s initial reaction is that she cannot understand how Anne-Marie did it. Nora’s thinks that her children might forget her once she leaves. She asks Anne-Marie whether her ...

Summary Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 16

Summary - Article Example The second question that the author discusses is the capability of computers crossing geographical distances, thus making world a small place. The third argument questions the ability of computers to act and remain intelligent, while being at the disposal of the human being. However, as one can witness from the current trend, computers have revolutionized the way world is conducting business currently. The ability of computers to deal with information has changed age-old supply chain systems, advertising patterns, warfare techniques as well as marketing and social networking. Author argues that informational boom had started almost 100 years back, as witnessed by inventions of radio and TV, as well as haul trucks and other equipment. However, the way computers have increased the efficiency of these gadgets is for all of us to witness now. Global distances have disappeared with use of computer and internet is another example of computers making our life easier and simpler, as geographical distances do not matter now for a project manager coordinating his project sites across the world. The author may be correct in questioning the intelligence of computers, as human brains still function in a superior manner, while directing a computer for finishing certain tasks. However, super-intelligent breed of computers will pave the way for creating intelligent smart machines, better than we have today. Gelernter, David â€Å"Computers and the Pursuit of Happiness†, goggle books, nd, web, 12 March 2015:

Russian Literature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Russian Literature - Essay Example For example he talks about revolution in the words, ‘revolution is everywhere, in everything. It is infinite†¦some day an exact formula for the law of revolution will be established. And in this formula nations, classes, stars, books will be expressed as numerical quantities.’ (108). the reference to numerical quantities is the figurative reference to one social and political body. Zamyatin in his essay discusses the dependent existence of everything in this world. He states that not only a man’s present, past and future are interlinked but also an individual’s every wise decision or a mistake accounts for his future actions. Since making mistakes and then bearing the consequences or dealing with them is a very humane reaction and resultantly it is a sign of life. As mentioned in the text, ‘all truths are erroneous†¦today’s truths become errors tomorrow’ also it is stated ‘the dead-alive also write, walk, speak, and act. But they make no mistakes: only machines make no mistakes and they produce only dead things the alive-alive are constantly n error, in search, in question, in torment’ (110).

Evaluating Aristotle Essay Example for Free

Evaluating Aristotle Essay Far from being a social constraint, or perhaps a force that elicits fear of being caught, the motives that move a person to choose what is good and avoid what is evil draw well the fine line that separates actions that may be regarded as moral, or those that are immoral. Ethics is important, if not necessary in relation to human living. At the very least, this science helps maintain the fundamental order of and within a society. This is possible because ethics is not only a theory that informs people about what is good or bad, it also asks them to adhere to the principles it teaches. It is thus both informative and formative, or both a theory and practice, consistent with how it is commonly defined: â€Å"the discipline dealing with what is good and bad, and with moral duty and obligation† (Merriam-Webster). But what would perhaps be an equally interesting point to look at is the diverging manner by which many people believe to be the basis of moral action. Key to understanding this would be to ask: why be moral? It may help to cite three notable thinkers who have given their own take of the matter. Aristotle, Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill on Ethics Aristotle’s most eloquent articulation of his ethical theories figures in his infamous work called Nicomachean Ethics. In it, his overarching concern to prove that ethics is chiefly related to the concept of â€Å"ends† (or purposes) can be learned. According to Aristotle, every human activity hopes to achieve the â€Å"end† or the â€Å"good† to which it is pursued – e. g. , â€Å"in medicine this is health, in strategy victory, in architecture a house† (Nicomachean Ethics, 7). While Aristotle further contends that there are activities which are pursued for its own sake – and not for the sake of arriving at a good apart from the activities themselves (Nicomachean Ethics, 1) – his work manifests a greater emphasis laid on the goal-orientedness of all human activities. Now, Aristotle further maintains that human life too has an inherent end that needs to be pursued. He thinks of this fundamental human good as happiness – â€Å"the best, noblest, and most pleasant thing in the world† (Nicomachean Ethics, 8). And he himself argues that it is an end that must be pursued not for the sake of anything else, but precisely because it is a chief good in itself (Nicomachean Ethics, 7). Ethics for Aristotle is therefore basically a virtuous accordance of all human activities relative to happiness. This is where his virtue ethics takes shape. In order for all men to attain happiness, Aristotle believes that everyone needs to develop a virtue – a habit of acting that promotes an excellence in one’s use of reason. This is what Aristotle in essence implies when he says that â€Å"happiness is an activity of soul in accordance with perfect virtue† (Nicomachean Ethics, 13). Immanuel Kant’s is a philosopher who elevated ethics into the realm of metaphysics – that is, it is a science drawn from a priori principles (read: from demonstration or logic and not from a particular experiences) but are applied to definite situations in life as well (Kant, 1). This implies that ethics is something that must be applied for all men, in all places, and at all times. Simply put, ethics for Immanuel Kant is both necessary and universal in scope. It is necessary because all men are obliged by the dictates of their reason to obey moral laws; it is universal because moral laws care for no exception. Which is why, Kant believes that moral laws are â€Å"categorical imperatives† – a law that â€Å"concerns not the matter of the action, nor its intended result, but its form and the principle of which it is itself a result†, because it is â€Å"conceived as good in itself† and that it conforms to reason (Kant, 18-19). If only to clarify, Kant here states that a moral law must be obeyed neither on account of the benefit it brings nor the pleasure it elicits, but precisely because it is good in itself. In a way, a moral law is an empty formulation about duty; meaning, it is something that needs to be obeyed on account of nothing else but the adherence to the law itself. Should it be asked how one can arrive at a knowledge of moral law which is both necessary and universal, Immanuel Kant suggests that one can test human actions in reference to, say, this particular formulation: â€Å"act only on a maxim that you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law† (Kant, 23). John Stuart Mill meanwhile proposes a philosophy of ethics based on a more utilitarian perspective. In his work entitled Utilitarianism, he regards the outcome of an activity as the basis for evaluating the ethical repercussions of any action. He articulate this idea quite clearly in saying, â€Å"†¦utility or Happiness (must be) considered as the directive rule of human conduct† (Mill). In other words, ethics is based on how one carefully weighs in the maximum amount of happiness that may result from choosing an action, against the background of a host of alternative options. He even calls this approach the â€Å"Greatest Happiness Principle† – the â€Å"ultimate end with reference to and for the sake of which† all human activities become â€Å"desirable† (Mill). It works under the premise that before a person acts, he or she would have first appreciated which decision would turn in the best returns or outcomes, both in terms of quality and quality. Mill’s ethical philosophy, one may quickly notice, runs in serious contradiction with Aristotle and Kant, whose theories have taught the necessity of adhering to a virtuous life or to a moral imperative not on account of any purpose, but solely because of good inherent in the act itself. As Mill himself notes, â€Å"according to the utilitarian opinion, the end of human action, is necessarily also the standard of morality† (Mill). By Way of Conclusion: My Definition of Ethics Based on the above discussed ethical notions – its basis, nature and implications – I wish to conclude this paper with a proposal to define ethics as a norm that forms human freedom and, like Immanuel Kant, a law that must be universal and categorical. Firstly, I find that the tendency to define morality in terms of obligation does not at times appreciate the full weight of human freedom. But morality is precisely a human endeavor not only because humans have reason, but more importantly because actions stem from the fundamental use freedom as well. Moral acts, one must carefully note, are arrived at only with the proper education and nurturance of human freedom. It is in fact drawn from the basic premise that human freedom is at its best when one is able to use it to build up one’s welfare, as well as those of others. I am of the opinion that anyone who wish to expound on the ethical standards of an action must first begin with the evaluation of human freedom. In this way, ethics can shed light into the need to use the faculty of freewill for the sake of the goodness inherent in itself – as Aristotle and Kant have argued –, and directed towards the goodness of something else – as Mill has on the other hand proposed. Second, in an ethical theory where human freedom is of critical importance, it is thus wise to adopt the logic from which Immanuel Kant derives his categorical imperative. As one would notice, Kant’s maxim â€Å"do something as though you would want that action be done for all people† touches on two fundamental areas of ethics – the decision of the person, or human freedom, and the universality of the scope of moral laws. I find Kant here to be a great source of insight. With his theory, I believe that I can adopt the position that ethics is a science that forms human freedom because, in Kant’s maxim, the subjective capacity for self-determination is tempered by the duty to obey objective laws. Kant’s categorical imperative does little to undermine freedom, as it does try hard to protect the universal applicability of moral law. In this regard, I would therefore say that Kant’s ethical theory is the best position to take, at least from the perspective of ethical notion that I have chosen to adopt. References Aristotle. â€Å"Nicomachean Ethics†. 29 June 2008, http://classics. mit. edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen. 1. i. html â€Å"ethic. † Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2008. Merriam-Webster Online. 29 June 2008 http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/ethic Kant, Immanuel. â€Å"Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals†. 29 June 2008 http://www. scribd. com/doc/2225702/kantfundamental143 Mill, J. S. â€Å"Utilitarianism†. 29 June 2008 http://utilitarianism. org/mill2. htm